This article needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: – ( February 2014) A universal history is a work aiming at the presentation of the of mankind as a whole, coherent unit.A universal chronicle or world traces history from the beginning of written information about the past up to the present.Universal history embraces the events of all times and nations in so far as of them is possible.Universal history in the Western tradition is commonly divided into three parts, viz., and time. The division on ancient and medieval periods is less sharp or absent in the Arabic and Asian historiographies. A synoptic view of universal history led some scholars, beginning with, to distinguish the synchronous to 'classical antiquity' of the Western tradition. Jaspers also proposed a more universal periodization—prehistory, history and planetary history. All distinguished earlier periods belong to the second period (history) which is a relatively brief transitory phase between two much longer periods.

Wells,The roots of in the 19th century are bound up with the concept that history written with a strong connection to the could with 'the big picture', i.e. To a general, universal history.

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For example, probably the pre-eminent historian of the 19th century, founder of Rankean historical positivism, the classic mode of historiography that now stands against, attempted to write a Universal History at the close of his career. The works of world historians and are examples of attempts to integrate primary history and Universal History. Spengler's work is more general; Toynbee created a theory that would allow the study of 'civilizations' to proceed with integration of and Universal History writing. Both writers attempted to incorporate into general presentations of the history.

Toynbee found as the telos ( goal) of universal history the emergence of a single.Instances and description Ancient examples Hebrew Bible A project of Universal history may be seen in thewhich from the point of view of its redactors in the 5th century BC presents a history of humankind from to the,and from there a history of the down to. The is a 2nd-century CE rabbinic interpretation of this chronology.Greco-Roman historiography. Main article:In, the first universal history was written by ( 4th century BC). This work has been lost, but its influence can be seen in the ambitions of (203–120 BC) and ( 1st century BC) to give comprehensive accounts of their worlds. ' History is the earliest surviving member of the Greco-Roman world-historical tradition, although under some definitions of universal history it does not qualify as universal because it reflects no attempt to describe an overall direction of history or a principle or set of principles governing or underlying it. — - Ninth ThesisAn early European project was the of and others, written in the mid-18th century.Christian writers as late as in his Discours sur l'histoire universelle are still reflecting on and continuing the Medieval tradition of universal history.Speech of Universal History is considered by many Catholics as an actual second edition or continuation of the.

In this work Bossuet continues to provide an update of universal history according to Augustine's thesis of universal war between those humans that follow God and those who follow the Devil. This concept of world history guided by in a universal war between God and Devil is part of the official doctrine of the Catholic Church as most recently stated in the s document: 'The Church. Holds that in her most benign Lord and Master can be found the key, the focal point and the goal of man, as well as of all human history.all of human life, whether individual or collective, shows itself to be a dramatic struggle between good and evil, between light and darkness.The Lord is the goal of human history the focal point of the longings of history and of civilization, the center of the human race, the joy of every heart and the answer to all its yearnings.' In the 19th century, universal histories proliferated. – Philosophers such as, and, and political philosophers such as and, presented general theories of history that shared essential characteristics with the Biblical account: they conceived of history as a coherent whole, governed by certain basic characteristics or immutable principles.

Kant who was one of the earliest thinkers to use the term Universal History described its meaning in ':Whatever concept one may hold.concerning the freedom of the will, certainly its appearances, which are human actions, like every other natural event are determined by universal laws. Main article:is the study of the past from the beginning of to the. In, the period includes the early, and, in, the time up to the is included.The forms part of the. In this system, it follows the in some areas of the world. In the 24th century BC, the was founded.

22nd century BC) was followed by the between the 21st to 17th centuries BC. The also developed c. 21st century BC. Around the 18th century BC, the began. By 1600 BC, developed, the beginning of the in China emerged and there was evidence of a fully developed.

Also around 1600 BC, the beginning of dominance of the Eastern region is seen. From the 16th to 11th centuries BC the dominated the Nile Valley. Between 1550 BC and 1292 BC, the developed.The is the last principal period in the three-age system, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region.During the 13th to 12th centuries BC, the occurred in Egypt. 1200 BC, the was thought to have taken place.

1180 BC, the disintegration of the was underway.In 1046 BC, the Zhou force, led by, overthrows the last king of the Shang Dynasty. The is established in China shortly thereafter. In 1000 BC, the Kingdom begins in. Around the 10th to 7th centuries BC, the forms in. In 800 BC, the rise of city-states begins.

In 776 BC, the first recorded are held. Main article:The, also known as the Middle Ages, is a following the, fully underway by the 5th century and lasting to the 15th century, and preceding the. The medieval history is the middle period, or the middle age, in a three-period division of history:, Medieval,. The precise dates of the beginning, culmination, and end of the medieval history are more or less arbitrarily assumed according to the point of view adopted. Any hard and fast line drawn to designate either the beginning or close of the period in question is arbitrary. The widest limits given, viz., the irruption of the Visigoths over the boundaries of the Roman Empire, for the beginning, and the Middle Ages of the 16th century, for the close, may be taken as inclusively sufficient, and embrace, beyond dispute, every movement or phase of history that can be claimed as properly belonging to the medieval history.In Europe, the period saw the large-scale.

In South Asia, the were the classical period of the region. The 'Medieval' period on the Indian subcontinent lasts for some 1,500 years, and ends in the 13th century. During the late medieval history, were established in the Indian subcontinent. In East Asia, the age begins with the reunification of China and ends with China was conquered by the. The invaded North and West Asia and parts of eastern Europe in the 13th century and established and maintained their until the end of the medieval history.The Early medieval history saw the continuation of trends set up in (and, for Europe, ). The period is usually considered to open with those migrations of the German Tribes which led to the destruction of the Roman Empire in the West in 375, when the Huns fell upon the Gothic tribes north of the Black Sea and forced the Visigoths over the boundaries of the Roman Empire on the lower Danube.

A later date, however, is sometimes assumed, viz., when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, the last of the Roman Emperors of the West, in 476. Depopulation, deurbanization, and increased invasion were seen across the. And the, once part of the, became. Later in, the establishment of the allowed a return to systemic agriculture. There was sustained in and.During the High medieval history in Europe, -oriented art and architecture flourished and were mounted to recapture the from control. The influence of the emerging states in Europe was tempered by the ideal of an international.

The codes of and set rules for proper European behavior, while the European philosophers attempted to reconcile Christian faith and reason.During the Late medieval history in Europe, the centuries of prosperity and growth came to a halt.The close of the medieval history is also variously fixed; some make it coincide with the rise of Humanism and the Renaissance in Italy, in the 14th century; with the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453; with the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492; or, again, with the great religious schism of the 16th century. A series of famines and plagues, such as the and the, reduced the population around half before the calamities in the late medieval history. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. Western Europe experienced serious peasant risings: the, the, and the. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the.

Collectively the events are a. Pre 1800 MapGeographicus - World. 1798describes the historical period after the Middle history. Modern history can be further broken down into the and the late modern period after the and the.

Describes the span of historic events that are immediately relevant to the present time. The refers to the period of time in which the process by which the and the parts of the overcame pre-modern growth constraints and emerged during the 19th century as the powerful and wealthy world of the time, eclipsing, and the.The modern era began approximately in the 16th century. Many major events caused to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the in 1453, the fall of and the discovery of the in 1492, and 's in 1517. In the modern period is often dated to the start of the with the victory of over at the in 1485. History is usually seen to span from around the start of the 15th century, through the and the in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the in the late 18th century.Early modern age. Lamprecht, Karl (1905).

What is history? Five lectures on the modern science of history. Andrews (trans.), (trans.). New York: Macmillan Co. Epitome of ancient, mediaeval and modern history. Introduction, pages ix–xii.,.

An universal history: from the beginning of the world, to the Empire of Charlemagne. Page 1-6 (introduction). History begins at the point where monuments become intelligible and documentary evidence of a trustworthy character is fortheoming but from this point onwards the domain is boundless for Universal History as understood.

(Universal history: the oldest historical group of nations and the Greeks. X). Leopold von Ranke. Universal history: the oldest historical group of nations and the Greeks. Scribner, 1884.An epitome of universal history by A.

Cottinger., 1884. +. The Origin and Goal of History, (London: Yale University Press, 1949). Samuel N. Eisenstadt, Axial Age Civilizations, (New York: New York State University Press, 1986). Zubin Meer (ed.), Individualism: The Cultural Logic of Modernity, Lexington Books, 2011, p.

4. Donald A. Recent Themes in World History and the History of the West: Historians in Conversation. Univ of South Carolina Press, 2009. Page 1+. Solodow, Joseph B. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

P. 18. Wood, Ian. Gregory of Tours. (Bangor: Headstart History, 1994.). Mitchell, Kathleen and Wood, Ian, eds. The World of Gregory of Tours. (Boston: Brill, 2002).

Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View. Bossuet, J. (Paris, Furne et cie, 1853).

' in On History, (tr. Lewis White Beck, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill Co, 1963). Universal History, (tr. Wilson, New York: 1953). The Philosophy of History, (tr.

Hartman, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill Co, 1956). On History, (tr.

Lewis White Beck, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill Co, 1963, p 11-12); also Perpetual Peace in: Ibid., (p 106). Elphinstone, M. London: Murray. Smith, V. Oxford: Clarendon Press., & Stark, H. Cuttack: Orissa mission Press. Foster, S.

Hunter travel guides. Edison, NJ: Hunter Publishing. Page 6–7 (cf., 'Qin is perceived as 'China's first dynasty' and. Developed writing.).

Gernet, J. A history of Chinese civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wells, H. New York: Macmillan company.

Page 137. Strauss, Barry S. (2006) The Trojan War: A New History. Simon & Schuster. Emma Willard. A system of universal history, in perspective: accompanied by an atlas, exhibiting chronology in a picture of nations, and progressive geography in a series of maps.

Huntington, 1835. Page. ^: medius +: aevum (middle + age); See and. Intrinsic to the English language, 'modern' denotes (in reference to history) a period that is opposed to either ancient or medieval — modern history comprising the history of the world since the close of the Middle history. a term coined by. Dunan, Marcel.

Larousse Encyclopedia of Modern History, From 1500 to the Present Day. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. Helen Miller, Aubrey Newman. Early modern British history, 1485-1760: a select bibliography, 1970., Sites Organized by Period, Libraries. Bloy, Marjie (30 April 2002). The Victorian Web.

Retrieved 2009-01-09. Hazen, Charles Downer (1910). Europe since 1815. American historical series, H. Holt and Company. Krugman, Paul, The Conscience of a Liberal, W W Norton & Company, 2007, p.124-8.Further reading Pre-1920s books.,.

Baldwin and Cradock, 1833., Volume 1 By,., The System of History, Fayard 1989, 334 pages (not yet translated)., ' (Italian Academy Lectures), Columbia University Press 2002. Sale, George, Archibald Bower, and George Psalmanazar, '. Millar, 1747., '. 1835. Jones, Lynds Eugene, and, '. Putnam's sons, 1907.

313 pages. Fisher, George Park, '. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, and company, 1885. 674 pages., '. Hickling, Swan and Brewer, 1859. Translated by M.

Behr)., '., 1885. Clare, Israel Smith, '. Hill, 1897. Hill, 1897. Christian Karl Josias Freiherr von Bunsen, Samuel Birch, Philo (of Byblos.). Georg Weber - German. Hegel, GWF.

Philosophy of Right. Oxford UP: New York, 1967. 341-360 (pp. 216–223). As a point of clarification, Hegel writes of World History, although this is somewhat identical to Universal History. Kant, Immanuel.

“Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View.” In Philosophical Writings. Ernest Behler, ed. Lewis W Beck, tr. Continuum: New York, 1986. Pp. 249–262.Post-1920s books. by Arnold Toynbee. by Herbert Wells.

The Philosophy of History by Karl Jaspers. “Narrative Form as a Cognitive Instrument.” In Historical Understanding., et al., eds. Cornell UP: Ithaca, 1987. Pp. 182–203. White, Hayden. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe.

Johns Hopkins UP, 1975. 'The return of universal history.' History and Theory 49.4 (2010): 6-27. DOI 10.1111/j.1468-2303.2010.00557.x.

George Park Fisher. Outlines of Universal History Designed as a Text Book and for Private Reading. Kessinger Publishing, Jun 1, 2004.: A History of the Human Community. By William H.

McNeill. by Francis Fukuyama.Patents., Chart for Teaching Universal History, Nov 1, 1920.Websites. '. (Visual tour). '. Lydia - illuminate.

In medieval Europe, a code of ethics known as chivalry developed which included rules and expectations that the nobility would, at all times, behave in a certain manner. Chivalry was, in addition, a religious, moral and social code which helped distinguish the higher classes from those below them and which provided a means by which knights could earn themselves a favourable reputation so that they might progress in their careers and personal relations. Evolving from the late 11th century CE onwards, essential chivalric qualities to be displayed included courage, military prowess, honour, loyalty, justice, good manners, and generosity - especially to those less fortunate than oneself. By the 14th century CE the notion of chivalry had become more romantic and idealised, largely thanks to a plethora of literature on the subject and so the code persisted right through the medieval period with occasional revivals thereafter.

Function & Promotion

Chivalry, derived from the French cheval (horse) andchevalier(knight), was originally a purely martial code for elite cavalry units and only later did it acquire its more romantic connotations of good manners and etiquette. The clergy keenly promoted chivalry with the code requiring knights to swear an oath to defend the church and defenceless people. This relationship between religion and warfare only heightened with the Arab conquest of the Holy Lands and the resulting Crusades to reclaim them for Christendom from the end of the 11th century CE. The state also saw the benefits of promoting a code by which young men were encouraged to train and fight for their monarch. The discipline of the chivalric code must also have helped when armies were in the field (but not always), as did its inspirational emphasis on display; knights preened about the battlefield like peacocks with jewelled swords, inlaid armour, plumed helmets, liveried horses and colourful banners of arms. The magnificent sight of a troop of heavily armoured knights galloping on to the battlefield won many a medieval conflict before it had even started.

Romantic novels, poems and songs (chansons de geste) were written which promoted further still the ideal of chivalry with their rousing tales of damsels in distress, courtly love (the unrequited and unattainable love of a married aristocratic lady) and heroic, wandering champions (knight errants) fighting foreigners and monsters - which were essentially the same. The spread of the literature on the legendary figure of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table from the 12th century CE was especially influential on instilling ideals of honour and purity into the minds of medieval noblemen: in the Arthurian tales only the good and true would find the Holy Grail. Other figures from history which became examples to follow and who appeared as characters in the chivalric literature included Hector of Troy, Alexander the Great and Charlemagne. There even developed a literature of helpful chivalry guides for knights such as the French poem The Order of Chivalry (c. 1225 CE) which considered the correct initiation process for knighthood, the Book of the Order of Chivalry by the Aragonian Ramon Llull (1265 CE) and the Book of Chivalry by the French knight Geoffroi de Charny (published around 1350 CE). Perhaps most important of all sources on chivalry for later historians, at least, was the Chronicles by the historian Jean Froissart, written in the latter half of the 14th century CE.

Chivalry had another purpose besides making people well-mannered: to clearly separate the nobles from the common people. After the Norman Conquest of 1066 CE in England, for example, social divisions had become a little blurred and so chivalry became a means by which the nobility and landed aristocrats could persuade themselves they were superior and had a monopoly on honour and decorous behaviour. Knighthood thus became a sort of private members club where wealth, family lineage and the performance of certain initiation ceremonies allowed a person to enter the clique and then openly display their perceived superiority to the masses.

To keep up the standards of chivalry there developed over time certain restrictions on just who could become a knight. In 1140 CE Roger II, King of Sicily, for example, forbade any person who might disturb the public peace from being made a knight. In 1152 CE a decree in the Kingdom of Germany prohibited any peasant from ever being made a knight. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I made a similar law in 1186 CE, banning across the Empire the sons of peasants or priests from ever becoming a knight. Gone were the early days of chivalry when anyone who displayed great courage in battle stood a chance of being made a knight by a grateful lord or monarch. By the 13th century CE the idea had taken hold across Europe that only a descendant of a knight could become one. There were exceptions, especially in France and Germany during the 14th century CE when the sale of knighthoods became a handy way for kings to increase their state coffers but generally, the now prevailing view was that honour and virtue could only be inherited, not acquired.

Punishment & Demotion

There was a downside to parading around the countryside declaring to all and sundry how honourable one was, because the chivalric code also had its punishments for those who failed to meet its standards. A knight faced having his status removed and good name sullied forever if he were guilty of serious misdemeanours like fleeing a battle, committing heresy or treason. There was even a rule against a knight spending money too frivolously. If the unthinkable did happen to a knight then his spurs were removed, his armour smashed and his coat of arms removed or thereafter given some shameful symbol or only represented upside down.

Chivalric Orders

As knighthood and chivalry became more and more important as social status symbols, and at the same time loyalty to the church was replaced by that towards the crown, so specific orders arose - often initiated by monarchs - to create a hierarchy within the world of knights. The English king Edward III (r. 1327-1377 CE) was particularly noted for his support of tournaments and the cult of chivalry. At one tournament the king organised at Windsor Castle in 1344 CE, 200 knights were invited to join a chivalric brotherhood and then in 1348 CE he created the even more exclusive Order of the Garter for 24 chosen knights plus the king and his son, the Black Prince, who all proudly wore a dark blue garter. The order with its accompanying honours still exists today. Already, in Hungary in 1325 CE King Charles had founded the Order of Saint George and in 1332 CE King Alfonso XI of Castile and Leon had established the Order of the Sash. In France in 1351 CE, King John the Good (r. 1350-1364 CE) founded the chivalric Order of the Star whose specific aims were to promote chivalry and honour. The Order of the Star also imposed a 'never retreat in battle’ clause on its membership which may have been highly chivalrous but in the practicalities of warfare often proved disastrous - half the order was killed in one battle in Brittany in 1353 CE.

Initiation into special orders might involve the knight-elect taking a bath, donning symbolic robes and being blessed in a chapel while knights of the order looked on. The new knight might also be required to keep a vigil in the chapel overnight and, in the morning and after another religious service and a hearty breakfast, the initiate was ceremoniously dressed by two knights. It was then he was given his spurs, armour, helmet and freshly-blessed sword. The last stage of the elaborate ceremony involved the most senior knight of the order giving the new recruit a belt and then striking him on the shoulders with his hand or sword.

The Medieval Tournament

One of the best places, besides the actual battlefield, for a knight to show off all his qualities of chivalry was the medieval tournament. Here, at the mêlée (a mock cavalry battle) or one-on-one jousts, a good knight was expected to possess and display the following qualities:

• martial prowess (prouesse)

• courtesy (courtoisie)

• good breeding (franchise)

• noble manners (debonnaireté)

• generosity (largesse)

Given the importance of chivalry, those who had, amongst other misdemeanours, slandered a woman, been found guilty of murder or who had been excommunicated were banned from competition. Those who did win at tournaments could gain both honour and riches. The fact that fellow nobles were watching and perhaps too a lady of court whom the knight had taken a fancy to or whose favour he was sporting on his lance were additional spurs for competitors to achieve great deeds of valour and chivalry

Warfare & Chivalry

While the life of a man of arms was itself regarded as a noble pursuit it is important, perhaps, to note that although chivalry came to the fore in peacetime pursuits, it was largely absent during actual warfare and the slaughter of enemies, murder of prisoners, rape and pillaging all went on as tragically as it had done for millennia before the concept of chivalry was formed. Still, at least in theory, knights were supposed to pursue warfare for honour, the defence of the Christian faith or their monarch rather than mere financial gain.

A certain ethical code of conduct did develop in warfare and especially the humane and gracious treatment of prisoners but, of course, such ideals were not followed by all knights in all conflicts. Even such epitomes of chivalrous behaviour as Richard I of England was known to have slaughtered defenceless prisoners during the Third Crusade (1189-1192 CE). Certainly, by the acrimonious Wars of the Roses in England during the 15th century CE, a knight’s good name and social standing was unlikely to guarantee him chivalrous treatment if he were on the losing side of a battle and a noble surname might actually be a death sentence in itself, such were the family rivalries of the period. Still, some general points of chivalry were the warning of a siege by heralds so that the city’s residents could either surrender or its non-combatants could flee. Sometimes, citizens were even permitted to leave mid-siege during a general truce. If and when a city did fall there was also the expectation that churches and the clergy would not be harmed.

As armies contained many other elements besides knights, it was often impossible for the noblemen to ensure rules of chivalry were followed by all, especially in the chaos of victory. There was certainly, too, a difference in chivalry depending on who the enemy was. Infidels during the Crusades, for example, were not considered worthy of genteel treatment while civil wars against fellow knights might foster a greater degree of chivalry from the combatants. Finally, the chivalric code was sometimes at odds with the one essential feature of any successful army: discipline. Knights had had the idea of personal valour and glory drilled into them to such an extent that their desire to display courage could lead to foolish risk-taking and a disregard for the needs of the army as a whole to act as a disciplined fighting unit. One such infamous case involved the Templar Knights at the siege of Ascalon (in modern Israel) in 1153 CE when 40 knights attempted to storm the battlements themselves and even prevented rival units on their own side from joining in the attack. In the end, the Templars were defeated and their heads hung from the city’s walls - sometimes discretion really was the better part of valour, even for chivalrous knights.